Làm cách nào để nối myVar với một chuỗi bằng JavaScript?

String

In Python, strings can be delimited by a pair of single-quotes (

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

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To place a single-quote (

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

A triple-single-quoted or triple-double-quoted string can span multiple lines. There is no need for escape sequence to place a single/double quote inside a triple-quoted string. Chuỗi trích dẫn ba lần rất hữu ích cho tài liệu nhiều dòng, HTML và các mã khác

Python 3 uses Unicode character set to support internationalization (i18n)

Escape Sequences for Characters (\code)

Like C/C++/Java, you need to use escape sequences (a back-slash + a code) for

• Special non-printable characters, such as tab (

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  84), newline (

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  85), carriage return (

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  86)
• Resolve ambiguity, such as

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  83 (for

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  82 inside double-quoted string),

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  81 (for

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  80 inside single-quoted string),

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  91 (for ________139_______48)

• Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  93 for character in hex value and

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  94 for octal value

• Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  95 for 4-hex-digit (16-bit) Unicode character and

  Enter a number: 123456789
  123456789 is a magic number
  123456789 is a magic number

  96 for 8-hex-digit (32-bit) Unicode character

Raw Strings (r'. ' hoặc r". ")

You can prefix a string by

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

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Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Strings are Immutable

Strings are immutable, i. e. , their contents cannot be modified. String functions such as

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Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Built-in Functions and Operators for Strings

You can operate on strings using

• built-in functions such as

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  04;
• operators such as

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  2 (contains),

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  0 (concatenation),

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  2 (repetition), indexing

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  21 and

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  22, and slicing

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

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Note. These functions and operators are applicable to all

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Ví dụ như,

Character Type?

Python does not have a dedicated character data type. A character is simply a string of length 1. You can use the indexing operator to extract individual character from a string, as shown in the above example; or process individual character using

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

The built-in functions

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Unicode vs ASCII

In Python 3, strings are defaulted to be Unicode. ASCII strings are represented as byte strings, prefixed with

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In Python 2, strings are defaulted to be ASCII strings (byte strings). Unicode strings are prefixed with

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You should always use Unicode for internationalization (i18n)

String-Specific Member Functions

Python supports strings via a built-in class called

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  41. strip the leading and trailing whitespaces, the right (trailing) whitespaces; and the left (leading) whitespaces, respectively

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  44. Return a uppercase/lowercase counterpart, respectively

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String Formatting 1 (New Style). Using str. format() function

Có một số cách để tạo một chuỗi được định dạng cho đầu ra. Python 3 introduces a new style in the

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$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

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When you pass lists, tuples, or dictionaries (to be discussed later) as arguments into the

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

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String Formatting 2. Using str. rjust(n), str. ljust(n), str. center(n), str. zfill(n)

You can also use

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String Formatting 3 (Old Style). Using % operator

The old style (in Python 2) is to use the

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

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Avoid using old style for formatting

Conversion between String and Number. int(), float() and str()

You can use built-in functions

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Concatenate a String and a Number?

You CANNOT concatenate a string and a number (which results in

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Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Giá trị Không có

Python cung cấp một giá trị đặc biệt có tên là

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

List, Tuple, Dictionary and Set

List [v1, v2,. ]

Python has a powerful built-in dynamic array called

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• A

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 is enclosed by square brackets

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  46
• A

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 can contain items of different types. It is because Python associates types to objects, not variables
• A

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 grows and shrinks in size automatically (dynamically). You do not have to specify its size during initialization
• A

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 is mutable. You can update its contents

Built-in Functions and Operators for list

A

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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  11 functions such as

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• built-in

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  11 functions for

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 of numbers such as

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  88,

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  89, and

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  90
• built-in operators such as

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  2 (contains),

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  0 (concatenation) and

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  2 (repetition),

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  35,

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  96 (slicing)

Notes

• You can index the items from the front with positive index, or from the back with negative index. E. g. , if

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 is a list,

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  99 refer to its first and second items;

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  00 and

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  01 refer to the last and second-to-last items
• You can also refer to a sub-list (or slice) using slice notation

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  02 (from index

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  23 size)

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Ví dụ như,

Appending Items to a list

Copying a list

list-Specific Member Functions

The

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  23. return the index of the first occurrence of

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  19; or error

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  25. nối

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  26 đã cho vào sau

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 và trả về

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66;

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  30. append the given list

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  31 behind the

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 and return

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66; same as slicing operation

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  34

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  35. insert the given

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  26 before the

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  37 and return

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66. Hence,

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  39 inserts before the first item of the

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  20;

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  41 inserts at the end of the

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 which is the same as

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  25

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  44. remove the first occurrence of

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  19 from the

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  20 and return

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66; or error

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  48. remove and return the last item of the

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  20

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  50. remove and return the indexed item of the

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  20

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  52. remove all the items from the

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 and return

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66; same as operator

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  55

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  56. return the occurrences of

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  26

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  58. reverse the

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 in place and return

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  61. sort the

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05 in place and return

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  66

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  64. return a copy of

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  05; same as

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  66

Recall that

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Using list as a last-in-first-out Stack

To use a

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Using list as a first-in-first-out Queue

Để sử dụng

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Tuy nhiên,

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Tuple (v1, v2,. )

Tuple is similar to list except that it is immutable (just like string). Hence, tuple is more efficient than list. A tuple consists of items separated by commas, enclosed in parentheses

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

An one-item tuple needs a comma to differentiate from parentheses

The parentheses are actually optional, but recommended for readability. Nevertheless, the commas are mandatory. For example,

You can operate on tuples using (supposing that

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

• built-in functions such as

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  79;
• built-in functions for tuple of numbers such as

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  80,

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  81 and

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  82;
• operators such as

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  2,

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  0 and

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  2; and

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  14's member functions such as

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  87,

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  88, etc

Conversion between List and Tuple

You can covert a list to a tuple using built-in function

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Dictionary {k1. v1, k2. v2,. }

Python's built-in dictionary type supports key-value pairs (also known as name-value pairs, associative array, or mappings)

• A dictionary is enclosed by a pair of curly braces

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  8. The key and value are separated by a colon (

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  67), in the form of

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  15
• Unlike list and tuple, which index items using an integer index 0, 1, 2, 3,. , dictionary can be indexed using any key type, including number, string or other types
• Dictionary is mutable

Dictionary-Specific Member Functions

Lớp

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  97

• Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  98,

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  99,

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  04. merge the given dictionary

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  05 into

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  95. Override the value if key exists, else, add new key-value

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  07

For Examples,

Set {k1, k2,. }

A set is an unordered, non-duplicate collection of objects. A set is delimited by curly braces

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Ví dụ,

Set-Specific Operators (

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09,

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

01,

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

1,

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

74)

Python supports set operators

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Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Sequence Types. list, tuple, str

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

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For mutable sequences (

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

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Others

Deque

[LÀM]

Heap

[LÀM]

Flow Control Constructs

Conditional if-elif-else

The syntax is as follows. The

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

For example

There is no

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Comparison and Logical Operators

Python supports these comparison (relational) operators, which return a

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  7 (not equal to),

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  0 (greater than),

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  1 (greater than or equal to). (This is the same as C/C++/Java. )

• Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  2,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  3. Check if an item is. is not in a sequence (list, tuple, string, set, etc)

• Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  4,

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  75. Check if two variables have the same reference

Python supports these logical (boolean) operators.

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Chain Comparison v1 < x < v2

Python supports chain comparison in the form of

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Comparing Sequences

The comparison operators (such as

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In comparing sequences, the first items from both sequences are compared. If they differ the outcome is decided. Otherwise, the next items are compared, and so on

Shorthand if-else (or Conditional Expression)

The syntax is

Ví dụ,

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Note. Python does not use "

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

The while loop

The syntax is as follows

The

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Ví dụ,

break, continue, pass and loop-else

The

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

The

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

The loop-

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Examples. [TODO]

Using Assignment in while-loop's Test?

In many programming languages, assignment can be part of an expression, which return a value. It can be used in

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Python issues a syntax error at the assignment operator. In Python, you cannot use assignment operator in an expression

You could do either of the followings

The for-in loop

The

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

You shall read it as "for each item in the sequence. ". Again, the

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Iterating through Sequences

Iterating through a Sequence (String, List, Tuple, Dictionary, Set) using for-in Loop

The

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

for(;;) Loop

Python does NOT support the C/C++/Java-like

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Take note that you cannot use the "

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Manually creating the index list is not practical. You can use the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

The range() Built-in Function

The

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  04 tạo ra các số nguyên từ

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  95 đến

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  06;

• Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  07 produces integers from

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  24 to

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  06;

• Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  10 produces integers from

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  24 to

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  06 in step of

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  38

Ví dụ,

Using else-clause in Loop

Recall that the

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Iterating through a Sequence of Sequences

A sequence (such as list, tuple) can contain sequences. For example,

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Iterating through a Dictionary

There are a few ways to iterate through an dictionary

The iter() and next() Built-in Functions

The built-in function

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

The reversed() Built-in Function

To iterate a sequence in the reverse order, apply the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

The enumerate() Built-in Function

You can use the built-in function

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Multiple Sequences and the zip() Built-in Function

To loop over two or more sequences concurrently, you can pair the entries with the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Comprehension for Generating Mutable List, Dictionary and Set

List comprehension provides concise way to generate a new list. The syntax is

Ví dụ như,

Similarly, you can create dictionary and set (mutable sequences) via comprehension. For example,

Comprehension cannot be used to generate

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Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Quy ước đặt tên và kiểu mã hóa (PEP8 so với PEP 257)

quy ước đặt tên

These are the recommended naming conventions in Python

• Variable names. use a noun in lowercase words (optionally joined with underscore if it improves readability), e. g. ,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  26
• Function names. use a verb in lowercase words (optionally joined with underscore if it improves readability), e. g. ,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  27 or

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  28
• Class names. use a noun in camel-case (initial-cap all words), e. g. ,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  29,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  30,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  31
• Constant names. use a noun in uppercase words joined with underscore, e. g. ,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  32,

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  33

Coding Styles

Read

The recommended styles are

• Use 4 spaces for indentation. Don't use tab
• Lines shall not exceed 79 characters
• Use blank lines to separate functions and classes
• Use a space before and after an operator
• [TODO] more

Functions

Syntax

In Python, you define a function via the keyword

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

The syntax is

ví dụ 1

Take note that you need to define the function before using it, because Python is interpretative

Example 2

Example 3. Function doc-string

This example elaborates on the function's doc-string

• The first line "

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  36" specifies the type of the argument and return value. Python does not perform type check on function, and this line merely serves as documentation
• The second line gives a description
• Examples of function invocation follow. You can use the

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  37 module to perform unit test for this function based on these examples (to be described in the "Unit Test" section

The pass statement

The

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Function Parameters and Arguments

Passing Arguments by Value vs. by Reference

In Python

• Immutable arguments (such as integers, floats, strings and tuples) are passed by value. That is, a copy is cloned and passed into the function. The original cannot be modified inside the function
• Mutable arguments (such as lists, dictionaries, sets and instances of classes) are passed by reference. That is, they can be modified inside the function

Ví dụ như,

Function Parameters with Default Values

You can assign a default value to the "trailing" function parameters. These trailing parameters having default values are optional during invocation. For example,

Another example,

In stead of hard-coding the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Positional and Keyword Arguments

Python functions support both positional and keyword (or named) arguments

Normally, Python passes the arguments by position from left to right, i. e. , positional, just like C/C++/Java. Python also allows you to pass arguments by keyword (or name) in the form of

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

You can also mix the positional arguments and keyword arguments, but you need to place the positional arguments first, as shown in the above examples

Variable Number of Positional Parameters (*args)

Python supports variable (arbitrary) number of arguments. In the function definition, you can use

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Python supports placing

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Unpacking List/Tuple into Positional Arguments (*lst, *tuple)

In the reverse situation when the arguments are already in a list/tuple, you can also use

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Variable Number of Keyword Parameters (**kwargs)

For keyword parameters, you can use

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Unpacking Dictionary into Keyword Arguments (**dict)

Similarly, you can also use ** to unpack a dictionary into individual keyword arguments

Using both *args and **kwargs

You can use both

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Function Overloading

Python does NOT support Function Overloading like Java/C++ (where the same function name can have different versions differentiated by their parameters)

Function Return Values

You can return multiple values from a Python function, e. g. ,

It seems that Python function can return multiple values. Trên thực tế, một bộ chứa tất cả các giá trị trả về được trả về

Recall that a tuple is actually formed through the commas, not the parentheses, e. g. ,

Types Hints via Function Annotations

From Python 3. 5, you can provide type hints via function annotations in the form of

The type hints annotations are usually ignored, and merely serves as documentation. But there are external library that can perform the type check

Read. "PEP 484 -- Type Hints"

Modules, Import-Statement and Packages

Modules

A Python module is a file containing Python codes - including statements, variables, functions and classes. It shall be saved with file extension of "

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

By convention, modules names shall be short and all-lowercase (optionally joined with underscores if it improves readability)

A module typically begins with a triple-double-quoted documentation string (doc-string) (available in

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Example. The greet Module

Create a module called

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

This

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

The import statement

To use an external module in your script, use the

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Once

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

For example, to use the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

The import statements should be grouped in this order

1. Python's standard library
2. Third party libraries
3. Local application libraries

Tuyên bố từ nhập khẩu

The syntax is

With the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Ví dụ,

import vs. from-import

The

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Ví dụ: hãy tạo mô-đun sau có tên là

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Hãy thử

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Bây giờ, hãy thử

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Nhập khẩu có điều kiện

Python cũng hỗ trợ nhập có điều kiện. Ví dụ,

hệ thống. đường dẫn và các biến môi trường PYTHONPATH/PATH

Biến môi trường

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Đường dẫn tìm kiếm mô-đun Python được duy trì trong một biến Python

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Ví dụ,

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Các mô-đun đã nhập phải có sẵn ở một trong các mục nhập

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Để hiển thị các biến môi trường

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Tải lại mô-đun bằng cách sử dụng imp. tải lại () hoặc nhập khẩu. reload()

If you modify a module, you can use

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

NOTE. Since Python 3. 4, the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Template for Python Standalone Module

The following is a template of standalone module for performing a specific task

When you execute a Python module (via the Python Interpreter), the

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example. [TODO]

Packages

A module contains attributes (such as variables, functions and classes). Relevant modules (kept in the same directory) can be grouped into a package. Python also supports sub-packages (in sub-directories). Packages and sub-packages are a way of organizing Python's module namespace by using "dotted names" notation, in the form of

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

To create a Python package

1. Create a directory and named it your package's name
2. Put your modules in it
3. Create a

   Enter a binary string: 1011001110
   The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
   The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

   95 file in the directory

The

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

If

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Without the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Attributes in '__init__. py'

The

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

The attributes of the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Sub-Packages

A package can contain sub-packages too. For example,

Clearly, the package's dot structure corresponds to the directory structure

Relative from-import

In the

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Take note that in Python, you write

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Circular Import Problem

[LÀM]

Advanced Functions and Namespaces

Local Variables vs. Global Variables

Names created inside a function (i. e. within

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Names created outside all functions are global to that particular module (or file), but not available to the other modules. Global variables are available inside all the functions defined in the module. Phạm vi toàn cầu trong Python tương đương với phạm vi mô-đun hoặc phạm vi tệp. There is NO all-module-scope in Python

Ví dụ,

Function Variables (Variables of Function Object)

Trong Python, một biến nhận một giá trị hoặc đối tượng (chẳng hạn như

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A variable in Python can hold anything, a value, a function or an object

In Python, you can also assign a specific invocation of a function to a variable. For example,

Nested Functions

Python supports nested functions, i. e. , định nghĩa một hàm bên trong một hàm. For example,

Sản lượng dự kiến ​​là

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Take note that the inner function has read-access to all the attributes of the enclosing outer function, and the global variable of this module

Lambda Function (Anonymous Function)

Lambda functions are anonymous function or un-named function. They are used to inline a function definition, or to defer execution of certain codes. The syntax is

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Ví dụ,

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Lambda function, like ordinary function, can have default values for its parameters

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

More usages for lambda function will be shown later

Multiple Statements?

Take note that the body of a lambda function is an one-liner

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Functions are Objects

In Python, functions are objects (like instances of a class). Like any object,

1. a function can be assigned to a variable;
2. a function can be passed into a function as an argument; and
3. a function can be the return value of a function, i. e. , a function can return a function

Example. Passing a Function Object as a Function Argument

A function name is a variable name that can be passed into another function as argument

Example. Returning an Inner Function object from an Outer Function

Example. Returning a Lambda Function

Function Closure

In the above example,

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When we assign

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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This problem is resolved via so called Function Closure. A closure is an inner function that is passed outside the enclosing function, to be used elsewhere. In brief, the inner function creates a closure (enclosure) for its enclosing namespaces at definition time. Hence, in

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Functional Programming. Using Lambda Function in filter(), map(), reduce() and Comprehension

Instead of using a

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  040. Return an

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  041 yielding those

  Enter a hex string: 1abcd
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
  The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

  26s of

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  17 for which

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  044 is

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  5. Ví dụ,

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  046. Apply (or Map or Transform) the function func on each item of the

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  17. For example,

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  048 (in module

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  049). Apply the function of two arguments cumulatively to the items of a sequence, from left to right, so as to reduce the sequence to a single value, also known as aggregation. For example,

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  050. used frequently in big data analysis to obtain an aggregate value
• List comprehension. a one-liner to generate a list as discussed in the earlier section. e. g. ,

These mechanism replace the traditional for-loop, and express their functionality in simple function calls. It is called functional programming, i. e. , applying a series of functions (filter-map-reduce) over a collection

Decorators

In Python, a decorator is a callable (function) that takes a function as an argument and returns a replacement function. Recall that functions are objects in Python, i. e. , you can pass a function as argument, and a function can return an inner function. A decorator is a transformation of a function. It can be used to pre-process the function arguments before passing them into the actual function; or extending the behavior of functions that you don't want to modify, such as ascertain that the user has login and has the necessary permissions

Example. Decorating an 1-argument Function

Notes

1. The decorator

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   051 takes a 1-argument function as its argument, and returns an replacement 1-argument function

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   052, with its argument

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   10 clamped to

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   054, before applying the original function
2. In

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   055, we decorate the

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   056 function and assign the decorated (replacement) function to the same function name (confusing?. ). After the decoration, the

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   056 takes on a new decorated life

Example. Using the @ symbol

Using

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

For Java programmers, do not confuse the Python decorator

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example. Decorator with an Arbitrary Number of Function Arguments

The above example only work for one-argument function. You can use

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

We can also modify our earlier

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

The @wraps Decorator

Decorator can be hard to debug. This is because it wraps around and replaces the original function and hides variables like

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example. Passing Arguments into Decorators

Let's modify the earlier

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

The decorator

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Confused?. Python has many fancy features that is not available in traditional languages like C/C++/Java

Namespace

Names, Namespaces and Scope

In Python, a name is roughly analogous to a variable in other languages but with some extras. Because of the dynamic nature of Python, a name is applicable to almost everything, including variable, function, class/instance, module/package

Names defined inside a function are local. Names defined outside all functions are global for that module, and are accessible by all functions inside the module (i. e. , module-global scope). There is no all-module-global scope in Python

A namespace is a collection of names (i. e. , a space of names)

A scope refers to the portion of a program from where a names can be accessed without a qualifying prefix. For example, a local variable defined inside a function has local scope (i. e. , it is available within the function, and NOT available outside the function)

Mỗi Mô-đun có một Không gian tên Toàn cầu

A module is a file containing attributes (such as variables, functions and classes). Mỗi mô-đun có không gian tên toàn cầu riêng. Do đó, bạn không thể định nghĩa hai hàm hoặc lớp cùng tên trong một mô-đun. Nhưng bạn có thể định nghĩa các hàm cùng tên trong các mô-đun khác nhau vì các không gian tên được tách biệt

Khi bạn khởi chạy trình bao tương tác, Python sẽ tạo một mô-đun có tên là

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Khi bạn nhập một mô-đun qua

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Tuy nhiên, nếu bạn nhập một thuộc tính thông qua

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

On the other hand, when you import a module inside another module (instead of interactive shell), the imported

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Các chức năng tích hợp được giữ trong một mô-đun có tên là

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Các hàm tích hợp globals(),locals() và dir()

Bạn có thể liệt kê tên của phạm vi hiện tại thông qua các hàm tích hợp này

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  091. trả về một từ điển (cặp tên-giá trị) chứa các biến toàn cục của phạm vi hiện tại

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  092. return a dictionary (name-value pairs) containing the current scope's local variables. If

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  092 is issued in global scope, it returns the same outputs as

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  091

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  095. return a list of local names in the current scope, which is equivalent to

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  096

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  097. return a list of the local names for the given object

Ví dụ,

To show the difference between locals and globals, we need to define a function to create a local scope. For example,

More on Module's Global Namespace

Let's create two modules.

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Let's import

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Take note that the interpreter's current scope

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Now, let run

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Take note that the current scope's

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Name Resolution

When you ask for a name (variable), says

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1. L. Local namespace which is specific to the current function
2. E. for nested function, the Enclosing function's namespace
3. G. Global namespace for the current module
4. B. Built-in namespace for all the modules

If

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Modifying Global Variables inside a Function

Recall that names created inside a function are local, while names created outside all functions are global for that module. You can "read" the global variables inside all functions defined in that module. For example,

If you assign a value to a name inside a function, a local name is created, which hides the global name. For example,

To modify a global variable inside a function, you need to use a

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

For nested functions, you need to use the

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

To modify a global variable inside a nested function, declare it via

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

In summary,

1. The order for name resolution (for names inside a function) is. local, enclosing function for nested

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   55, global, and then the built-in namespaces (i. e. , LEGB)
2. However, if you assign a new value to a name, a local name is created, which hides the global name
3. You need to declare via

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   83 statement to modify globals inside the function. Similarly, you need to declare via

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   84 statement to modify enclosing local names inside the nested function

More on global Statement

The

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

In the above example, we modify the contents of the array. The

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

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In the above example, we are modifying the reference to the variable.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Built-in Namespace

The built-in namespace is defined in the

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

[LÀM]

del Statement

You can use

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

If you override a built-in function, you could also use

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Assertion and Exception Handling

assert Statement

You can use

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Ví dụ,

The assertions are always executed in Python

Syntax

The syntax for

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

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If the

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Exceptions

In Python, errors detected during execution are called exceptions. For example,

Whenever an exception is raised, the program terminates abruptly

try-except-else-finally

You can use

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example 1. Handling Index out-of-range for List Access

Các kết quả đầu ra dự kiến ​​là

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The exception handling process for

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

1. Python runs the statements in the

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   91-block
2. If no exception is raised in all the statements of the

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   91-block, all the

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   92-blocks are skipped, and the program continues to the next statement after the

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   162 statement
3. However, if an exception is raised in one of the statement in the

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   91-block, the rest of

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   91-block will be skipped. The exception is matched with the

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   92-blocks. The first matched

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   92-block will be executed. The program then continues to the next statement after the

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   162 statement, instead of terminates abruptly. Nevertheless, if none of the

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   92-blocks is matched, the program terminates abruptly
4. The

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   72-block will be executable if no exception is raised
5. The

   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
   Try lower...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
   Try higher...
   Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
   Congratulation!
   You got it in 7 trials.

   93-block is always executed for doing house-keeping tasks such as closing the file and releasing the resources, regardless of whether an exception has been raised

Syntax

The syntax for

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

The

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

CAUTION. Python 2 uses older syntax of "

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example 2. Input Validation

nâng cao Tuyên bố

You can manually raise an exception via the

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

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The syntax is

A

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

Built-in Exceptions

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  180,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  181,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  182. các lớp cơ sở

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  183. for

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  184,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  185,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  186

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  187

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  188. for

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  30,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  190

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  191. for

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  192,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  193
• [TODO] more

User-defined Exception

You can defined your own exception by sub-classing the

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example

with-as Statement and Context Managers

The syntax of the

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

Python’s

Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
Try lower...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
Try higher...
Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
Congratulation!
You got it in 7 trials.

ví dụ 1

This is equivalent to

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The with-statement's context manager acquires, uses, and releases the context (of the file) cleanly, and eliminate a bit of boilerplate

However, the

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Example 2

Frequently-Used Python Standard Library Modules

Python provides a set of standard library. (Many non-standard libraries are provided by third party. )

To use a module, use

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

math and cmath Modules

The

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• Constants.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  205,

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  87
• Power and exponent.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  207,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  208,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  209,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  210,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  211,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  212
• Converting

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  2 to

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  1.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  215,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  216,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  217

• 1
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  2 operations.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  219,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  220

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  221 (

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  222)
• Conversion between degrees and radians.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  223,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  224
• Trigonometric functions.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  225,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  226,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  227,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  228,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  229,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  230,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  231
• Hyperbolic functions.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  232,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  233,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  234,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  235,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  236,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  237

Ví dụ như,

In addition, the

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

statistics Module

The

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Mô-đun ngẫu nhiên

The module

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Ví dụ như,

sys Module

The module

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  242. exit the program by raising the

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  243 exception. If used inside a

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  91, the

  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 50
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 25
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 37
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 44
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 40
  Try lower...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 38
  Try higher...
  Enter your guess (between 0 and 100): 39
  Congratulation!
  You got it in 7 trials.

  93 clause is honored. The optional argument

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  246 can be an integer (default to 0 for normal termination, or non-zero for abnormal termination); or any object (e. g. ,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  247)

• Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  78. A

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 of module search-paths. Initialized from the environment variable

  Enter a binary string: 1011001110
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
  The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

  80, plus installation-dependent default entries. See earlier example

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  251,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  252,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  253. standard input, output and error stream

• $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  71. A

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  04 of command-line arguments passed into the Python script.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  256 is the script name. See example below

Example. Command-Line Arguments

The command-line arguments are kept in

$ Python3 grade_statistics.py
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
invalid grade, try again...
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
---------------
The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
The minimum is: 7
The minimum using built-in function is: 7
The sum is: 357
The sum using built-in function is: 357
The average is: 51.00
---------------
  0-9  : ***
 10-19 :
 20-29 :
 30-39 :
 40-49 : *
 50-59 :
 60-69 :
 70-79 :
 80-89 :
 90-100: ***

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Chạy tập lệnh

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đăng nhập mô-đun

Mô-đun đăng nhập

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

1. # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   262. Thông tin chi tiết có nghĩa là để gỡ lỗi

2. # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   263. Xác nhận rằng một sự kiện diễn ra như mong đợi

3. # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   264. Đã xảy ra sự cố ngoài ý muốn nhưng ứng dụng vẫn hoạt động

4. # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   265. Ứng dụng không hoạt động như mong đợi

5. # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   266. Serious error, the application may not be able to continue

Các chức năng ghi nhật ký là

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  267. Thực hiện cấu hình cơ bản của hệ thống ghi nhật ký. Các đối số từ khóa là.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  268,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  269 (mặc định nối thêm

  $ Python3 grade_statistics.py
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 9
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 999
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 101
  invalid grade, try again...
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 8
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 7
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 45
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 90
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 100
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): 98
  Enter a grade between 0 and 100 (or -1 to end): -1
  ---------------
  The list is: [9, 8, 7, 45, 90, 100, 98]
  The minimum is: 7
  The minimum using built-in function is: 7
  The sum is: 357
  The sum using built-in function is: 357
  The average is: 51.00
  ---------------
    0-9  : ***
   10-19 :
   20-29 :
   30-39 :
   40-49 : *
   50-59 :
   60-69 :
   70-79 :
   80-89 :
   90-100: ***

  51),

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  271 (ghi cấp độ này trở lên), v.v.

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  272,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  273,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  274,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  275,

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  276. Ghi nhật ký

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  277 ở cấp độ cụ thể.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  278 được hợp nhất thành

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  277 bằng cách sử dụng công cụ xác định định dạng

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  280. Chức năng ghi nhật ký chung, tại nhật ký đã cho

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  281

Ghi nhật ký cơ bản thông qua ghi nhật ký. basicConfig()

Ví dụ,

Các hàm ghi nhật ký hỗ trợ các công cụ xác định định dạng giống như

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a hex string: 1abcd
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" is: 109517
The decimal equivalent for hex "1abcd" using built-in function is: 109517

Chạy tập lệnh. Tệp nhật ký

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Theo mặc định, các bản ghi nhật ký bao gồm cấp độ nhật ký và tên nhật ký (mặc định là

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Lấy cấp nhật ký từ tệp cấu hình

Các mức nhật ký, chẳng hạn như

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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Cấp nhật ký thường được đọc từ tệp cấu hình, ở dạng chuỗi mô tả. The following example shows how to convert a string log-level (e. g. ,

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Định dạng bản ghi nhật ký

Để đặt định dạng thông báo tường trình, hãy sử dụng từ khóa

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

trong đó

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

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# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Ghi nhật ký nâng cao. Logger, Handler, Filter và Formatter

Cho đến nay, chúng tôi đã trình bày các phương tiện ghi nhật ký cơ bản. Thư viện

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• Người khai thác gỗ. hiển thị các phương thức cho ứng dụng để ghi nhật ký
• xử lý. gửi các bản ghi nhật ký do trình ghi nhật ký tạo đến đích thích hợp, chẳng hạn như tệp, bảng điều khiển (

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  253), email qua SMTP hoặc mạng qua HTTP/FTP
• bộ lọc. quyết định bản ghi nhật ký nào sẽ xuất ra
• Trình định dạng. specify the layout format of log records

Người khai thác gỗ

Để tạo một phiên bản

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Các phương pháp của

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Các phương pháp ghi nhật ký thường được sử dụng là.

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Các phương pháp cấu hình thường được sử dụng là

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  315

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  316 và

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  317

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  318 và

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  319

xử lý

Thư viện ghi nhật ký cung cấp các trình xử lý như

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Các phương pháp thường được sử dụng là

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  315.

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  315 của bộ ghi xác định mức thông báo nào sẽ được chuyển đến trình xử lý;

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  329. để định dạng tin nhắn được gửi đến đích

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  318 và

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  319

Bạn có thể thêm nhiều trình xử lý vào trình ghi nhật ký, có thể xử lý các cấp độ nhật ký khác nhau. Ví dụ: bạn có thể thêm một

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Trình định dạng

Đính kèm với trình xử lý (thông qua

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Thí dụ. Using Logger with Console Handler and a Formatter

1. There is probably no standard for log record format (unless you have an analysis tool in mind)?. Nhưng tôi khuyên bạn nên chọn một dấu phân cách trường không xuất hiện trong thông báo tường trình để dễ xử lý các bản ghi nhật ký (e. g. , xuất sang bảng tính)

Các kết quả đầu ra dự kiến ​​là

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Thí dụ. Sử dụng tệp nhật ký xoay vòng với RotatingFileHandler

1. Chúng tôi giữ tất cả các tham số ghi nhật ký trong từ điển, thường được truy xuất từ ​​tệp cấu hình
2. Trong hàm tạo của

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   324,

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   338 đặt giới hạn kích thước tệp nhật ký; . Cả

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   338 và

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   339 mặc định là 0. Nếu một trong hai bằng 0, cuộn qua không bao giờ xảy ra
3. Ví dụ trên tạo ra 4 tệp nhật ký.

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   345,

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   346 đến

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   347. Tệp được ghi vào luôn là

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   345. Khi tệp này được lấp đầy, nó được đổi tên thành

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   346;

Thí dụ. Sử dụng nhật ký email cho cấp độ quan trọng và luân phiên các tệp nhật ký cho cấp độ INFO

Thí dụ. Tách Nhật ký LỖI và Nhật ký INFO với Định dạng khác nhau

Mô-đun ConfigParser (Python 2) hoặc configparser (Python 3)

Mô-đun

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Tệp

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

1. A configuration file consists of sections (marked by

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   358 header). Một phần chứa các cặp

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   359 hoặc

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   360. Các khoảng trắng đầu và cuối được cắt bớt từ

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   361. Các dòng bắt đầu bằng

   Enter a number: 123456789
   123456789 is a magic number
   123456789 is a magic number

   4 hoặc

   # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ python3 grade_statistics.py
   
   # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
   $ cd /path/to/project_directory
   $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
   $ ./grade_statistics.py

   363 là nhận xét

Bạn có thể sử dụng

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  366. đọc và phân tích từ danh sách tên tệp. Nó ghi đè các khóa với mỗi tệp liên tiếp, nếu có

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  367. lấy giá trị của

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  368 từ

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  369

Nội suy với SafeConfigParser

Một

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Enter a number: 123456789
123456789 is a magic number
123456789 is a magic number

Enter a binary string: 1011001110
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" is: 718
The decimal equivalent for binary "1011001110" using built-in function is: 718

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Mô-đun ngày giờ

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  379. Trả về ngày địa phương hiện tại

Mô-đun smtplib và email

The SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, which handles sending email and routing email between mail servers. Python cung cấp một mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Để sử dụng

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

[TODO] more

Mô-đun json

JSON (Ký hiệu đối tượng JavaScript) là định dạng trao đổi dữ liệu nhẹ lấy cảm hứng từ cú pháp ký tự đối tượng JavaScript. Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  384. Tuần tự hóa

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  385 thành chuỗi được mã hóa JSON ('s' cho chuỗi)

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  386. Tạo một đối tượng Python từ chuỗi được mã hóa JSON đã cho

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  387. Nối tiếp _______46_______385 vào tệp

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  389. Tạo một đối tượng Python bằng cách đọc tệp đã cho

Ví dụ,

mô-đun dưa chua và cPickle

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  394. Trả lại biểu diễn ngâm của

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  385 dưới dạng một chuỗi

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  396. Xây dựng một đối tượng Python từ

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  397

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  398. Viết một đại diện ngâm của

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  385 đến

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  400

• # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  401. Xây dựng một đối tượng Python đọc từ

  # (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ python3 grade_statistics.py
  
  # (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
  $ cd /path/to/project_directory
  $ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
  $ ./grade_statistics.py

  400

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

mô-đun tín hiệu

Tín hiệu (ngắt phần mềm) là một dạng hạn chế của giao tiếp giữa các quá trình không đồng bộ, tương tự như ngắt phần cứng. Nó thường được hệ điều hành sử dụng để thông báo cho các quy trình về một số vấn đề/trạng thái/lỗi nhất định, như chia cho 0, v.v.

Mô-đun

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

dấu hiệu. dấu hiệu()

Phương thức

# (All platforms) Invoke Python Interpreter to run the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ python3 grade_statistics.py

# (Unix/Mac OS/Cygwin) Set the script to executable, and execute the script
$ cd /path/to/project_directory
$ chmod u+x grade_statistics.py
$ ./grade_statistics.py

Làm cách nào để nối biến với chuỗi trong JavaScript?

Làm cách nào để nối số với chuỗi trong JavaScript?

Cách tốt nhất để nối các chuỗi trong JavaScript là gì?

Cái gì được sử dụng để nối các chuỗi trong JavaScript?