Which model describes personality as having an effect on stressful events?

Feeding Development and Disorders☆

Irene Chatoor, Loredana Lucarelli, in Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development (Second Edition), 2020

Treatment

The transactional model described above has served as a basis for an intervention to facilitate internal regulation of eating in toddlers with IA. A treatment was developed by Chatoor (2009) that addresses the major components of the model: (1) parents are helped to understand the toddler's special temperament, namely the lack of awareness of hunger and fullness, and the toddler's intense interest in play and interactions with the caretakers; (2) parents' anxiety and worry about the infant's poor growth, their difficulty in setting limits to the toddler's provocative behaviors around eating, and how these difficulties may relate to experiences with their own parents, are explored; and (3) parents are provided with specific guidelines that detail how to structure mealtimes in order to facilitate the toddler's learning of hunger and fullness, and how to deal with the toddler's behaviors that interfere with feeding.

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Advances in Motivation Science

David W. Putwain, ... Richard Remedios, in Advances in Motivation Science, 2021

2.1 Transactional model of stress and coping (TSC)

The TSC (Folkman, 2008; Lazarus, 2006; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) proposes that two prototypical states, challenge and threat, arise from cognitive judgments of the meaning of a situation and one's ability to respond to the situation. In the TSC, primary appraisal refers to the judgment of a situation as being benign or stressful. Benign situations are judged as requiring no instrumental action on the part of the individual to facilitate a positive outcome, whereas stressful situations are judged to require specific action(s). Stressful situations themselves fall into two categories, they can be challenging or threatening. Challenging situations are those perceived to offer the potential for growth, mastery, and gain (e.g., performing well at exams). Threatening situations are those perceived to potentially result in harm or loss (e.g., performing poorly at exams).

The perception of challenge or threat is determined in a secondary appraisal of one's ability to cope with, and respond to, the stressful situation. Challenge results from the judgment that one has the necessary resources to cope (e.g., I know this exam is important but I have belief in my ability), and threat from the judgment that one does not (e.g., I know this exam is important but I do not think I have the skills to pass it). Although the implication of primary appraisal is that judgments of relevance or importance of a situation precede judgments of coping, this need not be the case. Secondary appraisals may, for instance, determine the initial relevance of a situation (e.g., Blascovich & Mendes, 2010; Jamieson, 2017). For instance, a fear appeal stating that effort may be required to avoid failure could be judged as irrelevant by a student who seems to find a subject naturally easy and seems to achieve high grades with little effort.

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Feeding Development and Disorders

I. Chatoor, M. Macaoay, in Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development, 2008

Treatment

This transactional model described above has served as a basis for an intervention to facilitate internal regulation of eating in toddlers with infantile anorexia. A treatment was developed by Chatoor and colleagues that addresses the major components of the model: (1) the parents are helped to understand the toddler’s special temperament, namely the lack of awareness of hunger and fullness, and the toddler’s intense interest in play and interactions with the caretakers; (2) the parents’anxiety and worry about the infant’s poor growth, their difficulty in setting limits to the toddler’s provocative behaviors around eating, and how these difficulties may relate to experiences with their own parents, are explored; and (3) the parents are provided with specific guidelines that detail how to structure mealtimes in order to facilitate the toddler’s learning of hunger and fullness, and how to deal with the toddler’s behaviors that interfere with feeding.

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Family Context in Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics

BARBARA H. FIESE, ... ROBIN S. EVERHART, in Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics, 2008

Family-Based Coping Interventions

The transactional model of interventions is useful for identifying points of entry to effect change with the aim to get the child and family back on track toward healthy development. There are other instances, however, in which the family may require assistance in coping with traumatic events and warrant interventions aimed not so much at changing the family's routines as at addressing the family's belief systems. One area that has received some attention in this regard is aiding families in coping with childhood cancer.

Most survivors of childhood cancer and their families do well after treatment; however there is a significant proportion of adolescents and their parents who report reexperiencing aspects of the illness that can be considered traumatic and stressful.139 To address these symptoms, a family-based treatment program has been developed to assist adolescents and their families in coping with surviving cancer.140,141 Families participate in a day-long discussion with other families who have been similarly affected by childhood cancer. The group discussion focuses on beliefs that survivors and their family members have about cancer with the ultimate aims of reducing stress and altering misperceptions. Findings from these interventions suggest that the intervention is successful in reducing adolescents' symptoms of posttraumatic stress and that there are positive benefits to family members. Although there is some evidence that the most stressed of family members may not be willing to participate in an all-day discussion format, Kazak and associates developed video formats that may be more accessible and show promising results in relieving stress in families with newly diagnosed cancer.129

Other examples of brief family-based interventions include targeting how parents and children interact with each other to promote better outcomes. As previously noted, family conflict can have detrimental effects on a variety of child health and behavioral outcomes. Some of these family-based interventions focus specifically on increasing positive forms of social interaction such as responsiveness, sensitivity, and warmth.142,143 These interventions are often employed with families with young infants and toddlers, who are at risk for developing developmental and behavioral problems as a result of birth complications or environmental stress.

Other family-based interventions also attend to interaction patterns as part of the larger multisystemic influences on child and adolescent health. Most notably, Henggeler developed a multisystemic therapy model that includes an intensive home-based family therapy component to improve adherence to diabetic regimens.144 Therapists' focuses include improving problem-solving skills, reducing conflict, and identifying monitoring strategies. Although labor intensive, this form of intervention has been shown effective in reducing health care costs.145

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Assessment in sports: psychological and neuropsychological approaches

Ruben J. Echemendia, ... Gabriela González, in Handbook of Psychological Assessment (Fourth Edition), 2019

Coping skills

The transactional model of stress and coping developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1987) explained coping as a phenomenon that involves both cognitive and behavioral responses that individuals use in an attempt to manage internal and/or external stressors perceived to exceed their personal resources. It is safe to say that coping with stressful and anxiety-provoking situations is first on the list of an athlete’s job description; and failure to do so will most likely result in subpar athletic performance. Omar-Fauzee, Daud, Abdullah, and Rashid (2009) observed that athletes at various at various levels of sport participation made use of a variety of effective coping strategies to help deal with the multiple stressors they encounter.

The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28) developed by Smith, Schultz, Smoll, and Ptacek (1995) is a popular self-report measure used to assess the various coping techniques implemented by athletes. The ACSI-28 measures the following domains: Coping with Adversity, Peaking Under Pressure, Goal Setting and Mental Preparation, Concentration, Freedom from Worry, Confidence and Achievement Motivation, and Coachability. Spieler et al. (2007) studied coping differences between starters and non-staring collegiate varsity football players and concluded that when combined with other factors such as size of high school when growing up as well as age, athletes who were part of the starting line-up scored higher on the Coping with Adversity domain.

The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situation (CISS), a 48-item self-report measure developed by Endler and Parker (1999), uses a multidimensional approach to asses coping across three distinct orientations: Task-Focused, Emotion-Focused, and Avoidance-Focused. Philippe, Seiler, and Mengisen (2004) assessed male and female elite athletes using the CISS and found female athletes scored higher in the use of Emotion and Avoidance Orientation compared to their male counterparts who scored higher in the use of Task Orientation as a coping approach. The authors attributed these observed coping behavior differences to the effect of social and gender norms, yet explained these observed differences were not substantial and only partly supported the “socialization model” (Philippe et al., 2004). Additionally, when comparing elite and non-elite athletes, they found elite athletes scored higher on the Avoidance Orientation Scale, and explained that these athletes may engage in the use of evasive techniques to discount or ignore particular stressors (i.e., money and expectations) in order to maintain top performance levels.

Another commonly used tool is the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (CICS; Gaudreau & Blondin, 2002). This instrument is a 39-item self-report measure that utilizes a 5-point Likert Scale to assess 10 different athletic coping strategies under three main scales that include: Task Orientation, Distraction Orientation, and Disengagement Orientation. Andrews and Chen (2014) utilized the CICS to study 478 runners of varying competencies to assess gender differences in coping styles during recovery from injury. They concluded that men used the Task-Oriented approach, particularly visualization, to cope with their respective injuries (“I can see myself getting better”). On the other hand, women more commonly adopted a Disengagement-Oriented approach to manage their recovery from injury (“I wish my injury would go away”). Nonetheless, they noted that the significant differences found in this study had low effect sizes.

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The Assessment of Family, Parenting, and Child Outcomes

Carina Coulacoglou, Donald H. Saklofske, in Psychometrics and Psychological Assessment, 2017

Bidirectional Models of Parenting and Temperament

In a transactional model, parenting and child temperament are expected to mutually shape each other over time. The concept of transactional relations is derived from an ecological perspective on development. In the transactional relations between parenting and temperament, parents’ effort might target reducing a child’s negative affect and disregulated behaviors. At the same time, it is these specific behaviors that might elicit more negative parenting that enhances behavioral and emotional problems. Conversely, parents’ efforts might aim at encouraging positive characteristics, such as effortful control, which in turn might elicit more positive parenting that would enhance psychological adjustment. The effects of parenting relate to children’s temperament, and interactions between parenting and child temperament might account for the complexity in the developmental process. Several theories have been formulated to explain how and why temperament may interact with parenting.

Bell’s (1968) early model on a bidirectional influence between parent and child behaviors emphasized these transactional influences in a series of cycles over time. More recent models have examined children’s differential responsiveness to parenting behaviors. The model of “organismic specificity” developed by Wachs (1987, 1994), supports the view that individuals variously respond to environmental factors based on their individual characteristics. Several more recent extensions of this model include the “biological sensitivity” to context model, which claims that individuals vary in the degree to which the environment affects their development, suggesting that some individuals are highly susceptible to environmental factors, whereas others are much less susceptible (Ellis & Boyce, 2008).

Belsky et al. (2007) proposed a more specific model of differential responsiveness, referred to as the “differential susceptibility hypothesis” (Belsky et al., 2007; Belsky & Pluess, 2009a, 2009b). This model proposes that individual characteristics and in particular reactivity may increase the child’s responsiveness to parenting, both positively and negatively. Thus, highly reactive children prosper in response to positive parenting and stumble in response to negative parenting.

A “diathesis-stress” model underlines that vulnerable individuals are mostly affected by negative or risky environments, with temperamental vulnerabilities and risky environments each enhancing the possibility for risk. Three of these theories (organismic specificity, biological sensitivity to context, and the differential susceptibility hypothesis) maintain that temperament will moderate the relation between parenting and adjustment. Additionally, these models suggest that temperament has both synergistic and buffering effects (Wachs, 1991).

Further, these models propose that temperament serves as a risk or protective factor and impacts the effect of parenting on the child’s development. That is, environmental effects vary across levels of individual reactivity. An alternative hypothesis to the aforementioned theories is “environmental specificity” in which developmental outcomes vary as a function of diverse environmental variations, including specific parenting behaviors (Wachs, 1991).

The various transactional models between parenting practices and child outcome have influenced treatments of parent–child relations. Although there are various treatments for disruptive behavior that are primarily parent-directed, such as Parent Management Training (Patterson, Reid, Jones, & Conger, 1975), Helping the Non-Compliant Child (McMahon & Forehand, 2003), and Parent–Child Interaction Therapy, or are child-directed, such as Problem-Solving Skills Training (Kazdin, 2010) and Anger Coping Program (Larson & Lochman, 2002), some treatments include protocols for working with both children and their parents and consider the family as a unit—for example, Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2010), Combined Parent Management Training, and Problem Solving Skills Training (Kazdin, 2010).

There is increasing interest in the relationship between the quality of parenting and young children’s self-regulation and externalizing problems. In particular, investigators have paid attention to such constructs as positive and negative functioning (e.g., Blair et al., 2011; Gustafsson, Cox, & Blair, 2012).

One type of negative parenting that has recently captured the attention of researchers is parental intrusiveness or overcontrol. Intrusive parenting might undermine the child’s behavioral and emotional self-regulation (e.g., Graziano, Keane, & Calkins, 2010).

Eisenberg, Taylor, Widaman, and Spinrad (2015) examined potential bidirectional relations among intrusive maternal parenting, children, effortful control, and children’s externalizing problems during the preschool period. A panel structural equation model was applied to examine relations among these constructs when controlling for prior levels of the variables (i.e., controlling for stability). In order to examine child effects, the authors investigated paths from child maladjustment and effortful control to intrusive parenting, as well as paths between maladjustment and effortful control and within-time associations among parenting, effortful control, and maladjustment. The findings are consistent with the view that children’s externalizing behavior undermines their effortful control and contributes to intrusive mothering and that relations between intrusive parenting and effortful control are bidirectional across time. Thus, interventions that focus on modifying children’s externalizing problems (as well as the quality of parenting) might affect the quality of parenting they receive and, hence, subsequent problems with adjustment.

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Divorce and Children's Social Development

E.R. Anderson, S. Wolchik, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

3 Risk and Protective Factors

In the transactional model of divorce, changes in family relationships and environmental circumstances before and after divorce, rather than the divorce itself, are the critical determinants of children's postdivorce adjustment problems. These risk and protective factors influence the extent to which children will be adversely affected by parental divorce. Factors that are present prior to divorce include characteristics of the parents themselves (see Capaldi and Patterson 1991). Research indicates that parents who divorce are more likely to have a history of economic problems, alcoholism, depression, and antisocial behavior. Not surprisingly, they also are more likely to have poor parenting skills prior to the divorce. Postdivorce differences in children's adjustment may thus reflect predivorce exposure to inconsistent, inept childrearing practices and chaotic household routines. Moreover, couples who later divorce are more likely to display poorer conflict resolution skills and higher negativity. Through modeling and imitation, children may learn these ineffective strategies and employ them in other contexts. For example, in high conflict homes, children may be drawn into marital conflict as a way for spouses to gain relative advantage over each other, and these experiences may train children to manipulate their parents. Consistent with these notions, research has shown that children living in homes where the marriage is distressed but not yet formally dissolved fare worse than those who experience a relatively amicable divorce (see Hetherington 1999). In addition, divorce appears to improve the adjustment of children for whom postdivorce parental conflict is dramatically reduced over predivorce levels.

Some risk and protective factors involve changes occurring after divorce. For many families, parental divorce introduces a series of social and economic changes that may interfere with the functioning of both parents and children (see Forgatch et al. 1995, Hetherington et al. 1998, Simons et al. 1996 for more detailed discussion). Economic stress introduces deterioration in living conditions, as families move to neighborhoods and schools of lower quality. Custodial parents face the challenge of task overload in managing new household, childcare, and financial responsibilities. Custodial parents may lose friends who were part of the couple's network, resulting in isolation and reductions in social support. Adults dealing with such stressors show higher rates of physical and mental health problems that interfere with their ability to be competent parents. Consistent with this view, custodial and noncustodial parents are less effective and consistent in controlling and monitoring their children, and show higher levels of punitiveness and irritability with their children than nondivorced parents. Moreover, conflict between parents and children becomes more frequent and intense after divorce. Researchers have consistently demonstrated that child adjustment after divorce is explained in part by the effect of stressors experienced by custodial parents on their parenting practices and that high quality custodial parent–child relationships mitigate the negative effect of divorce-related stressors on adjustment problems.

In addition to deteriorations in the quality of the relationship between the custodial parent and child, most children experience a dramatic loss of contact with the noncustodial parent. Although noncustodial mothers are more likely to maintain contact with their children than are noncustodial fathers, simply maintaining contact with the noncustodial parent does not appear to enhance children's postdivorce adjustment. Involvement with a noncustodial parent is most beneficial when parents maintain an amicable postdivorce relationship. Moreover, the quality rather than the quantity of the involvement by the noncustodial parent appears to play a more critical role in children's postdivorce adjustment (Hetherington et al. 1998, Simons et al. 1996).

Following divorce, relationships with siblings and peers change as well. Sibling relationships become more negative and conflictual, and such changes in relationships have been related to increased aggression and other problem behaviors. Moreover, children of divorce are more likely to become involved with antisocial peers, and may experience a loss of positive peer support due to residential changes. These alterations in peer relationships may exacerbate potential difficulties by increasing the child's exposure to delinquent activities or by removing a potential buffer from conflictual relationships within the family (Hetherington et al. 1998).

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Healthcare☆

Lauren K. O'Connell, Michael W. Yogman, in Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development (Second Edition), 2020

Transactional Model

Later models, most notably the transactional model (Sameroff and Fiese, 2000), place a much stronger emphasis on the role of environmental factors in child health development. The transactional model regards neurological, psychological, and social development as dynamic processes resulting from complex interactions between the child and the caregiving environment. Developmental health is dependent on the child and the parent adapting to each other as developmental change progresses. The quality of the caregiver–child relationship is viewed as central to the child's well-being, so support for parents with child-rearing responsibilities is crucial for the child's positive health development. Although widely accepted in the child development field, the transactional model has not yet been fully integrated with the core tenets of the medical model to produce an integrated model that would guide delivery of child healthcare services. In fact, the current pediatric healthcare delivery system is largely based on an outmoded logic model focused almost exclusively on the child in isolation, rather than the child interactive with the environment. Consequently, although parenting advice, education, and support is gradually being incorporated into child health supervision guidelines, these activities remain largely under- or unreimbursed.

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Sexuality

JANE F. SILOVSKY, ... ELLEN C. PERRIN, in Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics, 2008

TRANSACTIONAL PROCESSES

Many scholars adhere to a transactional model of gender differentiation.7 A child's gender identity is constructed gradually over time: even if a biological predisposition does affect the likelihood of a child engaging in varying degrees of sex-typical versus sex-atypical behavior, many other factors probably either accentuate or attenuate its expression. Parental responses, as noted earlier, may be one such factor. Children themselves contribute to this process as they develop complex cognitive constructions of what it means to be a boy or a girl.65 The child's behavior may be both affected by and influence the quality of the relationship with his or her parents. A child's gender identity will affect emerging peer relationships, and the peer group may play a role in further gender differentiation.7

As another example of the direction-of-effect conundrum, consider the literature on parent-child relationships. In clinical studies of boys with GID, Stoller66 described a situation in which the relationship between mother and son was overly close and that between father and son was distant and peripheral. Stoller claimed that such qualities were of etiological relevance: “The more mother and the less father, the more femininity” (p 25). He argued that GID in boys was a “developmental arrest… in which an excessively close and gratifying mother-infant symbiosis, undisturbed by father's presence, prevents a boy from adequately separating himself from his mother's female body and feminine behavior” (p 25). Green41 assessed quantitatively the amount of shared time between fathers of feminine boys and control boys during the first 5 years of life. The fathers of feminine boys reported spending less time with their sons from the second to fifth year than did the fathers of the controls.

The picture that emerges for GID boys, then, is one in which they feel closer to their mothers than to their fathers.41 From a causal perspective, however, the direction-of-effect question can be raised: Do GID boys feel this way because their own behavior influences the quality of parent-child relations, or are there predisposing parental characteristics that are influential? Or are both factors involved, resulting in a complex transactional chain?

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Healthcare

S. Russ, ... N. Halfon, in Encyclopedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development, 2008

Transactional model

Later models, most notably Engle’s biopsychosocial model and the transactional model (Sameroff and Fiese) place a much stronger emphasis on the role of environmental factors in child health development. The transactional model regards neurological, psychological, and social development as dynamic processes resulting from complex interactions between the child and the caregiving environment. Developmental health is dependent on the child and the parent adapting to each other as developmental change progresses. The quality of the caregiver–child relationship is viewed as central to the child’s well-being, so support for parents with child-rearing responsibilities is crucial for the child’s positive health development. Although widely accepted in the child development field, the transactional model has not yet been fully integrated with the core tenets of the medical model to produce an integrated model that would guide delivery of child healthcare services. In fact, the current pediatric healthcare delivery system is largely based on an outmoded logic model focused almost exclusively on the child in isolation, rather than the child interactive with the environment. Consequently, although parenting advice, education, and support is gradually being incorporated into child health supervision guidelines, these activities remain largely under- or unreimbursed.

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Which model describes personality as having an effect of stressful events?

Although stress is an inevitable part of a person's life, it has different effects on different people. Some people develop psychological disorders after being exposed to major environmental stressors, while others do not.

Which of the following would be considered a stressful life events?

The top five most stressful life events include:.
Death of a loved one..
Divorce..
Moving..
Major illness or injury..
Job loss..

Which of the Big Five personality traits is most often associated with stress?

In general, the personality trait of neuroticism and rumination is known to be associated with negative, stress-related conditions such as depression and anxiety [15,16].

Which of the following is generally considered to be the most stressful major life event?

The loss of a loved one is often difficult to comprehend and cope with. The death of a close family member, such as a sibling, parent, or child is considered one of the most stressful life events.