Which of the following signs indicate that the placenta has separated and is ready to be delivered Select all that apply?

Summary

• Placental abruption means the placenta has detached from the wall of the uterus, either partly or totally. This can cause bleeding in the mother and may interfere with the baby’s supply of oxygen and nutrients.
• The cause is unknown in most cases, but risk factors may include maternal high blood pressure, abdominal trauma and substance misuse.
• Without prompt medical treatment, a severe case of placental abruption can have dire consequences for the mother and her unborn child, including death.

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Abruptio placentae is premature separation of a normally implanted placenta from the uterus, usually after 20 weeks gestation. It can be an obstetric emergency. Manifestations may include vaginal bleeding, uterine pain and tenderness, hemorrhagic shock, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Diagnosis is clinical and sometimes by ultrasonography. Treatment is modified activity [eg, a woman's staying off her feet for most of the day] for mild symptoms and prompt delivery for maternal or fetal instability or a near-term pregnancy.

Abruptio placentae and other obstetric abnormalities increase the risk of morbidity or mortality for the woman, fetus, or neonate.

Abruptio placentae occurs in 0.4 to 1.5% of all pregnancies; incidence peaks at 24 to 26 weeks gestation.

Abruptio placentae may involve any degree of placental separation, from a few millimeters to complete detachment. Separation can be acute or chronic. Separation results in bleeding into the decidua basalis behind the placenta [retroplacentally]. Most often, etiology is unknown.

• Clinical evaluation, sometimes plus laboratory and ultrasonographic findings

The diagnosis of abruptio placentae is suspected if any of the following occur after the 1st trimester:

• Vaginal bleeding [painful or painless]

• Uterine pain and tenderness

• Fetal distress or death

• Hemorrhagic shock

• DIC

• Tenderness or shock disproportionate to the degree of vaginal bleeding

Evaluation for abruptio placentae includes the following:

• Fetal heart monitoring

• CBC [complete blood count]

• Blood and Rh typing

• PT/PTT [prothrombin time/partial thromboplastin time]

• Serum fibrinogen and fibrin-split products [the most sensitive indicator]

• Transabdominal or pelvic ultrasonography

• Kleihauer-Betke test if the patient has Rh-negative blood—to calculate the dose of Rho[D] immune globulin needed

Fetal heart monitoring may detect a nonreassuring pattern or fetal death.

Transvaginal ultrasonography is necessary if placenta previa is suspected based on transabdominal ultrasonography. However, findings with either type of ultrasonography may be normal in abruptio placentae.

• Sometimes prompt delivery and aggressive supportive measures [eg, in a term pregnancy or for maternal or possible fetal instability]

• Trial of hospitalization and modified activity if the pregnancy is not near term and if mother and fetus are stable

Prompt cesarean delivery is usually indicated if abruptio placentae plus any of the following is present, particularly if vaginal delivery is contraindicated:

• Maternal hemodynamic instability

• Nonreassuring fetal heart rate pattern

• Term pregnancy [≥ 37 weeks]

Once delivery is deemed necessary, vaginal delivery can be attempted if all of the following are present:

• The mother is hemodynamically stable.

• The fetal heart rate pattern is reassuring.

• Vaginal delivery is not contraindicated [eg, by placenta previa or vasa previa].

Hospitalization and modified activity [modified rest] are advised if all of the following are present:

• Bleeding does not threaten the life of the mother or fetus.

• The fetal heart rate pattern is reassuring.

• The pregnancy is preterm [< 37 weeks].

This approach ensures that mother and fetus can be closely monitored and, if needed, rapidly treated. [Modified activity involves refraining from any activity that increases intra-abdominal pressure for a long period of time—eg, women should stay off their feet most of the day. Women should be advised to refrain from sexual intercourse.

Corticosteroids should be considered [to accelerate fetal lung maturity] if gestational age is